Volume 14, Issue 1
Year 2023
159
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Diarrhea is a major cause of reduced growth and mortality in piglets during the suckling and weaning periods and poses a major threat to the global pig industry. Diarrhea and gut dysbiosis may in part
This study investigated the effects of inorganic and organic minerals on physiological responses, oxidative stress reduction, and rumen microbiota in Holstein bull calves (123.81 Β± 9.76 kg; 5 months o
Broilers have a robust metabolism and high body temperature, which make them less tolerant to high-temperature (HT) environments and more susceptible to challenges from elevated temperatures. Gut micr
Mastitis is an inflammatory disease of the mammary gland that has serious economic impacts on the dairy industry and endangers food safety. Our previous study found that the body has a gut/rumen-mamma
Sex hormones play important roles in the estrus return of post-weaning sows. Previous studies have demonstrated a complex and bi-directional regulation between sex hormones and gut microbiota. However
The effect of microbial phytase on amino acid and energy digestibility is not consistent in pigs, which may be related to the phytase dosage or the adaptation length to the diet. Therefore, an experim
The ovaries are one of the first organs that undergo degenerative changes earlier in the aging process, and ovarian aging is shown by a decrease in the number and quality of oocytes. However, little i
Atresia and degeneration, a follicular developmental fate that reduces female fertility and is triggered by granulosa cell (GC) apoptosis, have been induced by dozens of miRNAs. Here, we report a miRN
The provision of environmental enrichments to Muscovy ducks could reduce the expression of the aggressive behaviors. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of black soldier fly (BSF)
Yellow mealworm larvae (YML; Tenebrio molitor) are considered as a valuable insect species for animal feed due to their high nutritional values and ability to grow under different substrates and reari
With methane emissions from ruminant agriculture contributing 17% of total methane emissions worldwide, there is increasing urgency to develop strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in this sec
Oxidative stress, caused by an imbalance in the production and elimination of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), has been recognized for its detrimental effects on mammalian embryonic develo
Domestic goose breeds are descended from either the Swan goose (Anser cygnoides) or the Greylag goose (Anser anser), exhibiting variations in body size, reproductive performance, egg production, feath
Salpingitis is one of the common diseases in laying hen production, which greatly decreases the economic outcome of laying hen farming. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum was effective in preventing local
In the modern sheep production systems, the reproductive performance of ewes determines the economic profitability of farming. Revealing the genetic mechanisms underlying differences in the litter siz
The establishment of a robust gut microbiota in piglets during their early developmental stage holds the potential for long-term advantageous effects. However, the optimal timeframe for introducing pr
Ruminants play a critical role in our food system by converting plant biomass that humans cannot or choose not to consume into edible high-quality food. However, ruminant excreta is a significant sour
In beef cattle, more than 50% of the energy input to produce a unit of beef is consumed by the female that produced the calf. Development of genomic tools to identify females with high genetic merit f
The importance of sheep breeding in the Mediterranean part of the eastern Adriatic has a long tradition since its arrival during the Neolithic migrations. Sheep production system is extensive and gene
Protamination and condensation of sperm chromatin as well as DNA integrity play an essential role during fertilization and embryo development. In some mammals, like pigs, ejaculates are emitted in thr
As an important epigenetic modification, DNA methylation is involved in many biological processes such as animal cell differentiation, embryonic development, genomic imprinting and sex chromosome inac
Chinese indigenous pigs are popular with consumers for their juiciness, flavour and meat quality, but they have lower meat production. Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) is a maternally imprinted gro
Rumen bacterial groups can affect growth performance, such as average daily gain (ADG), feed intake, and efficiency. The study aimed to investigate the inter-relationship of rumen bacterial compositio
The red macroalgae Asparagopsis is an effective methanogenesis inhibitor due to the presence of halogenated methane (CH4) analogues, primarily bromoform (CHBr3). This study aimed to investigate the de
Four-chambered stomach including the forestomachs (rumen, reticulum, and omasum) and abomasum allows ruminants convert plant fiber into high-quality animal products. The early development of this four
The primary differentially methylated regions (DMRs) which are maternally hypermethylated serve as imprinting control regions (ICRs) that drive monoallelic gene expression, and these ICRs have been in
Global warming leading to heat stress (HS) is becoming a major challenge for broiler production. This study aimed to explore the protective effects of seaweed (Enteromorpha prolifera) polysaccharides
Studying the composition and developmental mechanisms in mammary gland is crucial for healthy growth of newborns. The mammary gland is inherently heterogeneous, and its physiological function dependen
During approximately 10,000 years of domestication and selection, a large number of structural variations (SVs) have emerged in the genome of pig breeds, profoundly influencing their phenotypes and th
Valine is an essential amino acid and a type of branched-chain amino acid. Due to the involvement of branched-chain amino acids in various metabolic pathways, there has been a surge of interests in va
Two studies were designed to determine standard ileal crude protein (CP) and amino acid (AA) digestibility of soybean meal (SBM) from different origins fed to non-pregnant and pregnant sows. Seven sol
To improve our understanding of host and intestinal microbiome interaction, this research investigated the effects of a high-level zinc oxide in the diet as model intervention on the intestinal microb
In the current context of global warming, thermal manipulation of avian embryos has received increasing attention as a strategy to promote heat tolerance in avian species by simply increasing the egg
Pan-genomics is a recently emerging strategy that can be utilized to provide a more comprehensive characterization of genetic variation. Joint calling is routinely used to combine identified variants
As demand for high quality animal feed continues to raise, it becomes increasingly important to minimize the environmental impact of feed production. An appealing sustainable approach to provide feed
Muscle represents a unique and complex system with many components and comprises the major edible part of animals. Vitamin D is a critical nutrient for animals and is known to enhance calcium absorpti
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules of 22β24 nucleotides that regulate gene expression. In the last decade, miRNAs have been described in sperm of several mammals,
Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA), an environmental pollutant known for its endocrine-disrupting properties, during gestation has been reported to increase the risk of fetal growth restriction (FGR) in an
Maternal nutrition is essential in keeping a highly efficient production system in the pig industry. Laminarin has been shown to improve antioxidant capacity, reduce the inflammatory response, and fav
Many phenotypes in animal breeding are derived from incomplete measures, especially if they are challenging or expensive to measure precisely. Examples include time-dependent traits such as reproducti
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin widely present in raw food and feed materials and is mainly produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum. Our previous study showed that OTA principal
Integrins are a highly complex family of receptors that, when expressed on the surface of cells, can mediate reciprocal cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions leading to asse
The poultry industry needs effective antibiotic alternatives to control outbreaks of necrotic enteritis (NE) caused by Clostridium perfringens. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of
Rosemary extract (RE) has been reported to exert antioxidant property. However, the application of RE in late-phase laying hens on egg quality, intestinal barrier and microbiota, and oviductal functio
Forage inclusion in starters of young dairy calves has become an acceptable strategy in the last decade. To compensate for the lower energy provided by forage, concurrent lipid supplementation can be
As pre-cut and pre-packaged chilled meat becomes increasingly popular, integrating the carcass-cutting process into the pig industry chain has become a trend. Identifying quantitative trait loci (QTLs
Rises in global warming and extreme weather occurrence make the risk of heat stress (HS) induced by high ambient temperatures more likely in high-yielding dairy cows, resulting in low milk quality and
Intestinal health plays a pivotal role in broiler chicken growth. Oregano aqueous extract (OAE) effectively exerts anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects. However, the protective effects of OAE o
A healthy intestine plays an important role in the growth and development of farm animals. In small intestine, Paneth cells are well known for their regulation of intestinal microbiota and intestinal
Hepatic steatosis is a prevalent manifestation of fatty liver, that has detrimental effect on the health and productivity of laying hens, resulting in economic losses to the poultry industry. Here, we
The tongue-rolling behaviour of cows is regarded as an outward sign of stressed animals in a low welfare status. The primary aim of this observational study was to evaluate the association between the
Artificial insemination (AI) is a routine breeding technology in animal reproduction. Nevertheless, the temperature-sensitive nature and short fertile lifespan of ram sperm samples hamper its use in A
Starch is a major component of carbohydrates and a major energy source for monogastric animals. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin and has different physiological functions due to its diffe
Genome editing has been considered as powerful tool in agricultural fields. However, genome editing progress in cattle has not been fast as in other mammal species, for some disadvantages including lo
Serotonin is an important signaling molecule that regulates secretory and sensory functions in the gut. Gut microbiota has been demonstrated to affect serotonin synthesis in rodent models. However, ho
Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) is evidenced to be effective in the prevention and alleviation of metabolic disorders, including obesity, diabetes and fatty liver disease. However, the role of GBE in alle
Increasing resilience is a priority in modern pig breeding. Recent research shows that general resilience can be quantified via variability in longitudinal data. The collection of such longitudinal da
Previous investigations into the effect of dietary forage on calf performance have been inconsistent, and there is a paucity of information exploring the effect of age on the growth performance and ru
Numerous researchers and institutions have been developing in ovo sexing technologies to improve animal welfare by identifying male embryos in an early embryonic stage and disposing of them before pai
Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) is one of the major constraints in animal production. Our previous study showed that piglets with IUGR are associated with abnormal bile acid (BA) metabolism. Th
Genotype-by-sequencing has been proposed as an alternative to SNP genotyping arrays in genomic selection to obtain a high density of markers along the genome. It requires a low sequencing depth to be
During mammalian pre-implantation embryonic development (PED), the process of maternal-to-zygote transition (MZT) is well orchestrated by epigenetic modification and gene sequential expression, and it
Grape and winery by-products have nutritional values for cattle and also contain functional compounds like phenols, which not only bind to protein but can also directly affect microbiota and their fun
The development of a sustainable business model with social acceptance, makes necessary to develop new strategies to guarantee the growth, health, and well-being of farmed animals. Debaryomyces hansen
Wool fibers are valuable materials for textile industry. Typical wool fibers are divided into medullated and non-medullated types, with the former generated from primary wool follicles and the latter
Mammary gland (MG) infections (mastitis) are frequent diseases of dairy cows that affect milk quality, animal welfare and farming profitability. These infections are commonly associated with the bacte
Soybean (Glycine max) meal is one of the important protein sources for fish, but the non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in soybean meal impair the intestinal barrier function. Here we aimed to investiga
Abdominal fat deposition depends on both the proliferation of preadipocytes and their maturation into adipocytes, which is a well-orchestrated multistep process involving many regulatory molecules. Ci
Subclinical intramammary infection (IMI) represents a significant problem in maintaining dairy cowsβ health. Disease severity and extent depend on the interaction between the causative agent, environm
Cold regions have long autumn and winter seasons and low ambient temperatures. When pigs are unable to adjust to the cold, oxidative damage and inflammation may develop. However, the differences betwe
Alginate oligosaccharide (AOS) holds great potential as a novel feed supplement in farm animals. However, the effects of AOS on chicken health and the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. T
Soy protein supplements, with high crude protein and less antinutritional factors, are produced from soybean meal by different processes. This study evaluated the comparative effects of various soy pr
Reducing Salmonella infection in broiler chickens by using effective and safe alternatives to antibiotics is vital to provide safer poultry meat and minimize the emergence of drug-resistant Salmonella
Genomic selection involves choosing as parents those elite individuals with the higher genomic estimated breeding values (GEBV) to accelerate the speed of genetic improvement in domestic animals. But
Sustainable strategies for enteric methane (CH4) mitigation of dairy cows have been extensively explored to improve production performance and alleviate environmental pressure. The present study aimed
Lactulose as an effective prebiotic protects intestinal mucosal injury. Bacillus coagulans is widely used in feed additives because of its ability to promote intestinal health. Our previous study sugg
Antimicrobial alternatives are urgently needed, including for poultry production systems. In this study, we tested the potential broad-range antimicrobial alternative peracetic acid, delivered in feed
Clock circadian regulator (CLOCK) is a core factor of the mammalian biological clock system in regulating female fertility and ovarian physiology. However, CLOCK's specific function and molecular mech
Sperm is essential for successful artificial insemination in dairy cattle, and its quality can be influenced by both epigenetic modification and epigenetic inheritance. The bovine germline differentia
The skeletal muscle of pigs is vulnerable to oxidative damage, resulting in growth retardation. Selenoproteins are important components of antioxidant systems for animals, which are generally regulate
Heat stress in laying hens negatively affects egg production and shell quality by disrupting the homeostasis of plasma calcium and phosphorus levels. Although the kidney plays an important role in cal
Fertility declines in high-parity sows. This study investigated whether parity-dependent declines in embryonic survival and reproductive performance could be restored by dietary coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) s
Breed identification is useful in a variety of biological contexts. Breed identification usually involves two stages, i.e., detection of breed-informative SNPs and breed assignment. For both stages, t
A detailed understanding of genetic variants that affect beef merit helps maximize the efficiency of breeding for improved production merit in beef cattle. To prioritize the putative variants and gene
Pork quality can directly affect customer purchase tendency and meat quality traits have become valuable in modern pork production. However, genetic improvement has been slow due to high phenotyping c
Dairy cowsβ lactation performance is the outcome of the crosstalk between ruminal microbial metabolism and host metabolism. However, it is still unclear to what extent the rumen microbiome and its met
The study evaluated the effects of bacteriophage cocktail (BP) and ZnO administered during weaning time for piglets exposed to a non-sanitary environment. The bacteriophages were designed to eliminate
Carcass traits are crucial for broiler ducks, but carcass traits can only be measured postmortem. Genomic selection (GS) is an effective approach in animal breeding to improve selection and reduce cos
As large-scale genomic studies have progressed, it has been revealed that a single reference genome pattern cannot represent genetic diversity at the species level. While domestic animals tend to have
The feed intake of sows during lactation is often lower than their needs. High-fiber feed is usually used during gestation to increase the voluntary feed intake of sows during lactation. However, the
A gap currently exists between genetic variants and the underlying cell and tissue biology of a trait, and expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) studies provide important information to help close
In broiler chickens, necrotic enteritis (NE) infection can reduce production performance. Tannic acid has shown great potential as a treatment of NE in broilers. However, the appropriate dosage of tan
Chickens provide globally important livestock products. Understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underpinning chicken economic traits is crucial for improving their selective breeding. Influ
Bovine milk is an important source of nutrition for human consumption, and its quality is closely associated with the microbiota and metabolites in it. But there is limited knowledge about the milk mi
Mastitis not only deteriorates the composition or quality of milk, but also damages the health and productivity of dairy goats. Sulforaphane (SFN) is a phytochemical isothiocyanate compound with vario
Accumulating evidence from human trials and rodent studies has indicated that modulation of gut microbiota affects host physiological homeostasis and behavioral characteristics. Similarly, alterations
The fat deposition has a crucial role in animal meat flavor, and fat deposition-related traits are vital for breeding in the commercial duck industry. Avian fat-related traits are typical complex phen
The mechanism by which Meishan (MS) sows are superior to white crossbred sows in ovarian follicle development remains unclear. Given gut microbiota could regulate female ovarian function and reproduct
Mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) are recommended as aquaculture additives owing to their excellent antioxidant properties. In the present study, we examined the effects of dietary MOS on the head kidney
Sharply increased beef consumption is propelling the genetic improvement projects of beef cattle in China. Three-dimensional genome structure is confirmed to be an important layer of transcription reg
Improving the efficiency and production of grazing ruminants to support food and fiber production, while reducing the environmental footprint and meeting the welfare needs of the animals, is important
Mitochondrial dysfunction induced by excessive mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) damages embryonic development and leads to growth arrest. The purpose of this study is to elucidate whether m
The relationship between the intestines and their microbiota, the liver, and the neuronal system is called the gut-liver-brain axis. This relationship has been studied and observed for a relatively sh
There is a growing search for natural feed additives to alleviate the deleterious effects of coccidia infection in poultry production. This study aimed to investigate the effect of enzymatically treat
Liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinogenesis secondary to liver fibrosis are serious liver diseases with no effective treatments. Mori fructus aqueous extracts (MFAEs) have served as successful tr
Colonization and development of the gut microbiome are crucial for the growth and health of calves. In this review, we summarized the colonization, beneficial nutrition, immune function of gut microbi
High-grain (HG) diets affect lipid metabolism in the liver and mammary tissue of dairy cows, but its effects on muscle and adipose tissue have not been wide evaluated. Thus, the aim of this study is t
Ruminal microbiota in early life plays critical roles in the life-time health and productivity of ruminant animals. However, understanding of the relationship between gut microbiota and ruminant pheno
Oxidized soybean oil (OSO) has been shown to impair growth and exacerbate inflammation, leading to intestinal barrier injury in animals. Recent evidence suggests important roles for resveratrol (RES)
The quality and yield of cashmere fibre are closely related to the differentiation and development of secondary hair follicles in the skin of cashmere goats. The higher the density of secondary hair f
Dietary bamboo leaf flavonoids (BLFs) are rarely used in poultry production, and it is unknown whether they influence meat texture profile, perceived color, or microstructure. A total of 720 one-day-o
Intramuscular fat (IMF) content is a critical indicator of pork quality, and abnormal IMF is also relevant to human disease as well as aging. Although N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification was rec
Physiological changes during lactation cause oxidative stress in sows, reduce immunity, and hamper the growth capacity of piglets. Alpha-glycerol monolaurate (Ξ±-GML) has potential for enhancing the an
With rising concerns regarding the effects of red meat on human and environmental health, a growing number of livestock producers are exploring ways to improve production systems. A promising avenue i
Intestinal inflammation is the main risk factor causing intestinal barrier dysfunction and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can trigger inflammatory responses in various eukaryotic species. Yeast hydrolysate
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a widespread issue for feed and food safety, leading to animal and human health risks. The objective of this study was to determine whether ferroptosis is involved in DON-induc
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and calcidiol could be enriched in chicken for improving public nutrition and health. It remains unclear if supranutritional levels of DHA and calcidiol impair growth perfor
Ferulic acid esterase (FAE)-secreting Lactiplantibacillus plantarum A1 (Lp A1) is a promising silage inoculant due to the FAEβs ability to alter the plant cell wall structure during ensiling, an actio
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) can cause lipid disorders in infants and have long-term adverse effects on their growth and development. Clostridium butyricum (C. butyricum), a kind of emerging
Dietary fat is important for energy provision and immune function of lactating sows and their progeny. However, knowledge on the impact of fat on mammary transcription of lipogenic genes, de novo fat
Body phosphorus metabolism exhibits a circadian rhythm over the 24-h daily cycle. The egg laying behavior makes laying hens a very special model for investigating phosphorus circadian rhythms. There i
Corn arabinoxylan (AX) is a complicated and multibranched antinutritional factor, thereby proving the use of endo-xylanase (EX) to be marginally valid. This study focused on specific types of AX-degra
Many countries have already banned the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry, making it extremely difficult to maintain animal health in livestock breeding. In the livestock industry, there is an urg
Pectin is a heteropolysaccharide that acts as an intestinal immunomodulator, promoting intestinal development and regulating intestinal flora in the gut. However, the relevant mechanisms remain obscur
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), including L-leucine (L-Leu), L-isoleucine (L-Ile), L-valine (L-Val), and L-arginine (L-Arg), play a crucial role in mammary gland development, secretion of milk and
Lipid metabolism differs significantly between grazing and stall-feeding lambs, affecting the quality of livestock products. As two critical organs of lipid metabolism, the differences between feeding
Salmonella typhimurium (S.T), as an important foodborne bacterial pathogen, can cause diarrhea and gastroenteritis in humans and animals. Numerous studies have confirmed that exopolysaccharides (EPSs)
Arginine is an essential amino acid for chickens and feeding diets with arginine beyond the recommended levels has been shown to influence the growth performance of broiler chickens in a positive way.
Comparative and comprehensive omics studies have recently been conducted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying infertility. However, because these huge omics
In contrast to protein-rich insect meal, the feed potential of insect fat is generally less explored and knowledge about the suitability of insect fat as a fat source specifically in broiler diets is
The genomes of worldwide poultry breeds divergently selected for performance and other phenotypic traits may also be affected by, and formed due to, past and current admixture events. Adaptation to di
Anethole (AN) is an organic antioxidant compound with a benzene ring and is expected to have a positive impact on early embryogenesis in mammals. However, no study has examined the effect of AN on por
Domestic cats and dogs are carnivores that have evolved differentially in the nutrition and metabolism of amino acids. This article highlights both proteinogenic and nonproteinogenic amino acids. Dogs
Fatty acids are not only widely known as energy sources, but also play important roles in many metabolic pathways. The significance of fatty acids in modulating the reproductive potential of livestock
During the transition period, the insufficient dry matter intake and a sharply increased in energy consumption to produce large quantities of milk, high yielding cows would enter a negative energy bal
Geese are among the most important poultry species in the world. The current generally accepted hypothesis is that the European domestic geese originated from greylag geese (Anser anser), and Chinese
With the prohibition of antibiotics in feed, plant functional substances have been widely studied as feed additives. Resveratrol, a natural stilbene, and a non-flavonoid polyphenol found in plants, po
Inflammation of the mammary tissue (mastitis) is one of the most detrimental health conditions in dairy ruminants and is considered the most economically important infectious disease of the dairy sect
Lignocellulose biomass is the most abundant and renewable material in nature. The objectives of this study were to characterize two endoglucanases TrepCel3 and TrepCel4, and determine the effect of th
Zearalenone (ZEA) widely exists in moldy grains, which seriously destroys the fertility of females. Isorhamnetin, a natural flavonoid, has extensive of pharmacological activities. However, the benefic
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate numerous biological processes, including adipogenesis. Research on adipogenesis will assist in the treatment of human metabolic diseases and improve meat qualit
This study examined the efficacy of L-citrulline supplementation on the arginine/nitric oxide metabolism, and intestinal functions of broilers during arginine deficiency. A total of 288 day-old Arbor
Necroptosis and pyroptosis are newly identified forms of programmed cell death, which play a vital role in development of many gastrointestinal disorders. Although plant polyphenols have been reported
Anthocyanins (AC) showed positive effects on improving the intestinal health and alleviating intestinal pathogen infections, therefore, an experiment was conducted to explore the protective effects of
Growth-promoting antibiotics have been banned by law in the livestock and poultry breeding industry in many countries. Various alternatives to antibiotics have been investigated for using in livestock
Recent evidence suggests important roles for progesterone (P4) and interferon tau in the regulation of calcium, phosphate, and vitamin D signaling in the uteri of pregnant sheep. However, the effects
There is an urgent need to identify natural bioactive compounds that can enhance gastrointestinal health and promote pig growth performance in the absence of pharmacological levels of zinc oxide (ZnO)
Sperm migration by thermotaxis is a guidance mechanism that operates along the oviduct and it has proved to be a valid method for selecting spermatozoa with low DNA fragmentation (SDF) in mice, humans
Nitrate leaching to groundwater and surface water and ammonia volatilization from dairy farms have negative impacts on the environment. Meanwhile, the increasing demand for dairy products will result
Salmonella Typhimurium challenge causes a huge detriment to chicken production. N-acyl homoserine lactonase (AHLase), a quorum quenching enzyme, potentially inhibits the growth and virulence of Gram-n
The interaction between nutrition and immunity plays a vital role in nutrient digestion, absorption, and metabolism during poultry production. Recent studies showed that the gut microbiota contributes
Taurine performs multiple physiological functions, and the maintenance of taurine level for most mammals relies on active uptake from diet and endogenous taurine synthesis through its synthesis enzyme
Probiotics have been used in livestock production for many years, but information on their benefits during the early life of calves is inconsistent. This study aimed to assess the effects of probiotic
Over the past few decades, genetic selection and refined nutritional management have extensively been used to increase the growth rate and lean meat production of livestock. However, the rapid growth
Survival from birth to slaughter is an important economic trait in commercial pig productions. Increasing survival can improve both economic efficiency and animal welfare. The aim of this study is to
